“Envisioning African Intersex: Challenging Colonial and Racist Legacies in South African Medicine” by Amanda Lock Swarr (Associate Professor, Gender, Women & Sexuality Studies, University of Washington) was published 30 January 2023 and is a groundbreaking work that challenges entrenched scientific and social norms about intersex individuals, particularly within the context of South Africa. Swarr meticulously deconstructs the historical and contemporary narratives surrounding intersex bodies, highlighting how these narratives are steeped in colonialism, racism, and gender binaries. The book is divided into several chapters, each focusing on different aspects of intersex representation and activism, with a strong emphasis on the voices and experiences of intersex individuals themselves.

Critical Analysis of Scientific Definitions of ‘Intersex’

The book opens with a critical examination of how scientific definitions of intersex have historically pathologised and categorised intersex bodies. Swarr points out that intersex has been subjected to an extensive range of taxonomic and medical definitions, often used to enforce binary gender norms. She emphasises the problematic nature of these definitions, which date back to the early 1800s and became widely adopted by medical professionals in the 1950s. Swarr quotes Iain Morland, who argues that scholarly and popular considerations of intersex often start with statistics, giving a false impression that the “truth” of bodies can be separated from discourse. Instead, Morland suggests exploring “how and why knowledge about intersex is produced”.

Swarr introduces the concept of “citational chains,” which she defines as references that build on each other to create truth claims despite the fundamentally flawed foundations of the original works cited. These chains perpetuate erroneous observations by colonial explorers and scientists, linking “hermaphroditism” and intersex with blackness and spreading these ideas across academia, popular culture, journalism, and social media

Colonial Roots of Intersex Representations

The second chapter delves into the colonial roots of intersex representations, focusing on how colonial explorers and scientists constructed narratives around the “Hottentot apron” and other racialised body features. Swarr argues that Africa was positioned at the bottom of the hierarchy in the citational chain of explorers’ and scientists’ imaginations. She illustrates how British physicians like George Blacker and William Lawrence played a significant role in erasing the history and memory of European hermaphroditism, thus valorising European bodies and reinforcing racial hierarchies​.

Swarr’s analysis highlights the importance of understanding the historical context in which these scientific narratives were formed and how they continue to impact contemporary perceptions of intersex individuals. By exposing the colonial underpinnings of these narratives, she challenges readers to reconsider the legitimacy and motivations behind them.

Sally Gross

The third chapter focuses on Sally Gross, a prominent South African intersex activist and founder of the first intersex rights organisation in Africa, whose life and work epitomised the struggle against medical violence and social exclusion. Gross’s activism was deeply rooted in her anti-apartheid efforts, and she consistently linked the fight against apartheid with the struggle for intersex rights. Swarr provides a detailed account of Gross’s efforts to challenge the theories of scientists like John Money and H. J. Grace, as well as her critique of the medical protocols that pathologized intersex bodies​.

Gross’s activism was characterised by her insistence on the acceptance of the body as it is, without the need for conformity to binary gender norms. In her unpublished work, she reflects on her life and the challenges she faced:

“When it became increasingly clear that what I am challenges the dichotomy, it is almost as if I was seen as threatening the very order of creation. I was no longer seen as a legitimate inhabitant of a shared social and moral world”​.

Racial Categorisations Underlying Intersex Classifications

The book also delves into the racial categorisations used by Grace and others, which were deeply entrenched in apartheid logic. Grace’s detailed taxonomy of intersex conditions and his simplistic definition of race reflect the scientific racism of his time. He described South Africa as having “four well-defined population groups: Caucasoids, Negroids, Asiatics, and a mixed race of all three, the Coloureds”​​. This categorisation was used to justify the racial hierarchies and segregation policies of apartheid.

Swarr challenges these outdated notions, arguing for a more nuanced understanding of intersex variations that transcends racial and colonial boundaries. Her work underscores the need to decolonise medical protocols and embrace a more inclusive and intersectional approach to intersex studies.

Caster Semenya

The final chapter examines the case of Caster Semenya, a South African runner who has been subjected to intense scrutiny and invasive gender verification testing. Semenya’s treatment by sporting authorities and the media highlights the ongoing intersection of racism, colonialism, and gender policing. Swarr argues that Semenya’s experiences are emblematic of the broader issues faced by intersex and gender-nonconforming individuals, particularly in the Global South.

Swarr discusses how Semenya and her supporters have used social media campaigns, such as #HandsOffCaster, to challenge the racist and exclusionary practices of institutions like the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). These campaigns have played a crucial role in raising awareness about the injustices faced by Semenya and other athletes subjected to gender testing​.

Semenya’s case underscores the need for decolonising gender testing and embracing a more inclusive understanding of gender diversity. Her resilience in the face of institutional racism and sexism serves as a powerful example of the broader fight for intersex rights and recognition.

Conclusion

“Envisioning African Intersex” is a powerful and thought-provoking work that sheds light on the complex and often painful realities faced by intersex individuals. Amanda Lock Swarr’s meticulous research and insightful analysis provide a comprehensive understanding of the ways in which colonialism, racism, and gender binaries have shaped and continue to shape the lives of intersex people. By centring the voices and experiences of intersex activists like Sally Gross and Caster Semenya, Swarr not only exposes the historical injustices but also celebrates the resilience and agency of those who refuse to be defined by oppressive norms.

This book is an essential for anyone interested in intersex rights, gender studies, African studies, or the history of medicine. It challenges one to question one’s assumptions about gender and sex and to recognise the profound impact of colonial legacies on contemporary understandings of the body. Through its rigorous scholarship and compelling narratives, “Envisioning African Intersex” offers a vision of a more inclusive and just world, where all bodies are accepted and valued as they are.

Swarr negotiated with DUKE university that this book be available FREE of charge online. Chapters or the entire book can be downloaded. The income generated from books that are purchased are donated to Intersex South Africa (ISSA), the organisation founded by Sally Gross.

Video Interview with Amanda Lock Swarr About the Book

As part of the Knowing Africa Seminar Series, Amanda Lock Swarr discusses the book in the video below with Ann Cvetkovich (Professor, Feminist Institute of Social Transformation, Carleton University), Zethu Matebani (sociologist, activist, writer, documentary film maker, Professor and South Africa Research Chair in Sexualities, Genders and Queer Studies at the University of Fort Hare), and Jabu Pereira (Founder of IRANTI).

This review was written by our content contributor, Delphine Barigye